Development of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Based Chatbots to Support Independent Learning in the Distance Education System
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17977/um065.v7.i5.2027.12Keywords:
Artificial intelligence, Chatbot AI, Distance education, Educational design research, Independent learningAbstract
The increasing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in higher education creates new opportunities to provide flexible academic support for students in distance education. However, independent learners still face difficulties in obtaining immediate clarification, contextual explanations, step-by-step guidance, and responsive feedback when studying outside scheduled lecturer interactions. The novelty of this study lies in developing a course-oriented AI-based chatbot as structured pedagogical support for independent learning across geographically distributed distance learners. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the chatbot in terms of validity, practicality, usability, and perceived support for independent learning. Educational Design Research (EDR) was employed through three phases: Analysis and Exploration, Design and Construction, and Evaluation and Reflection. The study involved 100 undergraduate students from four regional learning centers—Bandung, Purwokerto, Bogor, and Yogyakarta—with 25 students from each location, as well as three expert validators. Data were collected using needs-analysis questionnaires, expert-validation instruments, practicality and usability questionnaires, and independent-learning support questionnaires. The needs analysis showed strong demand for flexible access, contextual examples, immediate feedback, and guided learning support. Expert validation yielded an overall Aiken’s V coefficient of 0.90, indicating high validity. The chatbot achieved an overall practicality and usability score of 89%, with learning flexibility receiving the highest rating. Student responses across the four regional centers were relatively consistent. The findings indicate that the developed AI-based chatbot is valid, practical, and usable as structured support for independent learning in distance
References
Abbas, M., Jam, F. A., & Khan, T. I. (2024). Is it harmful or helpful? Examining the causes and consequences of generative AI usage among university students. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00444-7
Ali, F., Choy, D., Divaharan, S., Tay, H. Y., & Chen, W. (2023). Supporting self-directed learning and self-assessment using TeacherGAIA, a generative AI chatbot application: Learning approaches and prompt engineering. Learning: Research and Practice, 9(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2023.2258886
Bond, M., Khosravi, H., De Laat, M., Bergdahl, N., Negrea, V., Oxley, E., Pham, P., Chong, S. W., & Siemens, G. (2024). A meta systematic review of artificial intelligence in higher education: A call for increased ethics, collaboration, and rigour. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, Article 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00436-z
Cela-Ranilla, J., Esteve-Mon, F. M., & Sánchez-Caballé, A. (2025). Design-based research in higher education: A systematic literature review between 2019 and 2023. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 41(4), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.10380
Chan, C. K. Y., & Hu, W. (2023). Students’ voices on generative AI: Perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20, Article 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00411-8
Ch’ng, L. K. (2023). How AI makes its mark on instructional design. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 18(2), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8161556
Correia, A.-P., Hickey, M. S., & Xu, F. (2024). Beyond the virtual classroom: Integrating artificial intelligence in online learning. Distance Education, 45(3), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2024.2338706
Debets, T., Banihashem, S. K., Joosten-Ten Brinke, D., Vos, T. E. J., Maillette de Buy Wenniger, G., & Camp, G. (2025). Chatbots in education: A systematic review of objectives, underlying technology and theory, evaluation criteria, and impacts. Computers & Education, 234, Article 105323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105323
Fageeh, A. (2025). The rise of chatbots in higher education: Exploring user profiles, motivations, and integration strategies. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12, Article 101996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101996
González-Pérez, L. I., Enciso-González, J. A., Vicario-Solorzano, C. M., & Ramírez-Montoya, M. S. (2025). Measuring digital transformation in Education 4.0 with DT-Smarty: Valid and reliable model. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-025-09844-8
Guan, R., Raković, M., Chen, G., & Gašević, D. (2025). How educational chatbots support self-regulated learning? A systematic review of the literature. Education and Information Technologies, 30, 4493–4518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12881-y
Habibi, A., Muhaimin, Danibao, B. K., Wibowo, Y. G., Wahyuni, S., & Octavia, A. (2023). ChatGPT in higher education learning: Acceptance and use. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, Article 100190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100190
Jo, H. (2024). From concerns to benefits: A comprehensive study of ChatGPT usage in education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, Article 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00471-4
Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Alramlawi, S., & Alhejori, K. (2023). Interacting with educational chatbots: A systematic review. Education and Information Technologies, 28(1), 973–1018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11177-3
Labadze, L., Grigolia, M., & Machaidze, L. (2023). Role of AI chatbots in education: Systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20, Article 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00426-1
Lee, Y.-F., Hwang, G.-J., & Chen, P.-Y. (2022). Impacts of an AI-based chatbot on college students’ after-class review, academic performance, self-efficacy, learning attitude, and motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 70, 1843–1865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-022-10142-8
Lee, Y.-F., Hwang, G.-J., & Chen, P.-Y. (2025). Technology-based interactive guidance to promote learning performance and self-regulation: A chatbot-assisted self-regulated learning approach. Educational Technology Research and Development, 73, 2279–2304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-025-10478-x
Lin, M. P.-C., Chang, D. H., & Winne, P. H. (2025). A proposed methodology for investigating student-chatbot interaction patterns in giving peer feedback. Educational Technology Research and Development, 73, 353–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10408-3
Luo, J., Zheng, C., Yin, J., & Teo, H. H. (2025). Design and assessment of AI-based learning tools in higher education: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 22, Article 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-025-00540-2
Malik, A. R., Pratiwi, Y., Andajani, K., Numertayasa, I. W., Suharti, S., Darwis, A., & Marzuki. (2023). Exploring artificial intelligence in academic essay: Higher education student’s perspective. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 5, Article 100296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100296
McGrath, C., Farazouli, A., & Cerratto-Pargman, T. (2025). Generative AI chatbots in higher education: A review of an emerging research area. Higher Education, 89, 1533–1549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01288-w
Nagy, A. S., Tumiwa, J. R., Arie, F. V., & Erdey, L. (2024). An exploratory study of artificial intelligence adoption in higher education. Cogent Education, 11(1), Article 2386892. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2386892
Pallant, J. L., Blijlevens, J., Campbell, A., & Jopp, R. (2026). Mastering knowledge: The impact of generative AI on student learning outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 51(4), 714–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2025.2487570
Palomero-Fernández, P., & Vicente-Sánchez, E. (2025). Assessing the willingness of Spanish pre-service secondary school teachers to use group dynamics techniques: Design and validation of an instrument. Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 14, Article 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44322-025-00037-w
Sabaruddin, Nur, M., Fadli, M., & Mazlan. (2022). Content validity of KIP-K scholarship instruments at higher education using Aiken’s coefficient validity scale. Al-Tanzim: Jurnal Manajemen Pendidikan Islam, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.33650/al-tanzim.v6i3.3680
Stöhr, C., Ou, A. W., & Malmström, H. (2024). Perceptions and usage of AI chatbots among students in higher education across genders, academic levels and fields of study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, Article 100259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100259
Sustaningrum, R., & Haldaka, M. (2025). Student utilization and perceptions of AI technology for academic purposes: A mixed-method analysis. Cogent Education, 12(1), Article 2553835. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2553835
Weng, X., Xia, Q., Gu, M., Rajaram, K., & Chiu, T. K. F. (2024). Assessment and learning outcomes for generative AI in higher education: A scoping review on current research status and trends. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 40(6), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.9540
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Suryo Prabowo, Abd Ghofur, Andayani, Bramianto Setiawan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
